Wales in the era of the Civil War, 1603–1660

In 1603 Elizabeth I died with no children of her own leaving James I as the clear heir to the throne of England and Wales. James was already King James VI of Scotland. He immediately set about trying to convince Parliament that a formal union between the two kingdoms was a good idea. James was unsuccessful in convincing Parliament of the need for union, but this did not stop James from calling himself King of Great Britain and Ireland.

James wanted to be seen as a peace maker, a unifier, both within the British Isles and in Europe. This is why another of his earliest actions was to end the war with Spain that his predecessor, Elizabeth, had been fighting since 1585. Later, he gave his sons, Henry and Charles the title of Princes of Wales to ensure that Wales felt included in national politics.

As his reign went on, James had many disagreements with Parliament, including the following.

Money and favourites

• James was renowned for living a lavish lifestyle, spending money that he did not have, hunting, partying and giving gifts to his royal favourites.
• James had close personal and political friendships with the Duke of Lennox, the Earl of Somerset, and with George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham. James gave them money, influence and titles. Parliament did not like these favourites.
• James did not earn enough money each year from the lands that he owned to support himself. He became more reliant on Parliament to fund his lifestyle. Parliament’s role was to provide money through taxes, but the House of Commons was not pleased to see its monarch waste money.

Religion

• Many Members of Parliament were Puritan and were hoping that the new king would make better changes to the existing religious settlement of Britain, making it more firmly Protestant. They believed this as James was from Scotland, which was Presbyterian.
• Catholics also expected James to improve conditions for their faith in England, as they assumed his mother's strong Catholic background would influence his policies.
• James himself was not particularly religious and saw religion as a political weapon to help control the country. James could not satisfy both Puritans and Catholics. A group of Catholics plotted to assassinate the king in the famous Gunpowder Plot of 1605. They failed and were arrested an executed. James I made life even harder for Catholic after the plot, with fines, restrictions and an Oath of Allegiance.
• James met with puritan leaders at the Hampton Court Conference in 1604. He refused most of their demands as he did not want to alienate Catholics in the nation or give Parliament more power over the country. He did agree to a new Bible, published in 1611 called the King James Bible. This was more in line with Puritan beliefs.

James died in 1625. During his reign, he often argued with Parliament, which was becoming more powerful. When he died, his son Charles became king.

When Charles I came to the throne in 1625, he inherited a reasonably stable country from his father. However, within 17 years all stability was gone, and Britain was plunged into Civil War.

Charles I was unhappy that Parliament had interfered during his father’s reign and continued to challenge him at the start of his own reign. So, he decided to rule without a Parliament. Starting in 1629, he began what is called his Personal Rule. He went for 11 years without calling Parliament.

Issues faced by Charles I

Financially, Parliament was supposed to support the nation through collecting taxes. However, without a parliament, Charles I had to rely on other methods of making money. He used Ship Money, the sale of monopoliesand by using his royal prerogative rights. Members of Parliament (MPs) thought he had no real right to do any of these things.

On top of this, Charles also appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury. Laud changed the Church of England by bringing back more elaborate church services and making people obey Bishops more strictly. Many Puritan Members of Parliament saw this as almost a return to Catholicism which made them unhappy.

When Laud and Charles tried to put these religious changes in place in Scotland, through introducing new bishops and a new prayer book, riots broke out in 1637. This eventually led to the Bishops’ Wars (1639-40) between Charles' forces, and his Scottish opponents. Charles lost as he lacked the money to finance his army. He had to go back to Parliament to ask for money.

The Short Parliament

Charles was worried about the criticism that would be aimed at him from Parliament. He was right to be worried as the Short Parliament, called in April 1640, refused to grant Charles money without major changes to his policies. Charles was furious and dissolved Parliament after only three weeks. When Charles was forced to call Parliament for the second time in 1640, Members of the Long Parliament, set about making changes so that they could get financial control over the king.

The Long Parliament

• Parliament first acted to remove Charles’ main supporters. They imprisoned Archbishop Laud and executed Thomas Wentworth.
• Parliament then made sure that Charles could not reign without a Parliament again, introducing the Triennial Act in 1641. They also tried to remove Charles’ control of the military through proposing the Militia Bill in 1641. This was at roughly the same time as a rebellion broke out in Ireland, and Parliament was worried that Charles would use this rebellion to raise an army and then turn on them.
• Tensions between Charles and Parliament were at an all-time high, and neither side liked nor trusted the other. The final straw came when Charles took armed soldiers into Parliament to arrest five MPs who had presented and published the Grand Remonstrance, a list of 204 complaints against Charles. Charles took this as a personal insult.
• Violent conflict, or civil war, between Charles and Parliament now looked very likely.

Charles I and Wales

Wales became one of Charles I's strongest areas of support. This was because many Welsh gentry,clergyand ordinary people believed in loyalty to the monarchy and supported the established Church of England.

There were many influential Welsh landowners who supported Charles, such as Sir John Owen who raised troops to support Charles.

Charles’ royal authority in Wales was also reinforced by the Council of Wales and the Marches which was based in Ludlow, who governed Wales on the king's behalf.

Parliament abolished the Council in 1641, weakening Charles's control in Wales. This increased resentment towards Parliament among many Welsh gentry.

So, when Civil War broke out in 1642 between Charles and Parliament, much of Wales supported the Royalist side.

The Civil War began in 1642 between the Royalists who supported Charles I, and the Parliamentarians who wanted to limit the King's power.

Wales strongly supported Charles I during the Civil War. Many Welsh people provided soldiers, money and supplies to help him. Welsh troops fought in many battles against Parliament's army in England.

The Battle of Edgehill (1642)

Foot soldiers from south Wales, led by Sir Edward Stradling fought alongside another Welsh regiment led by Sir Thomas Salusbury. Many were poorly equipped, carrying pikes,muskets or even farming tools. Stradling was captured after Prince Rupert's cavalry moved away, leaving his soldiers unprotected. Many Welsh soldiers were killed or injured.

The Battle of Newbury (1643)

Welsh troops also fought at the Battle of Newbury under commanders including Lord Richard Herbert. Charles was forced to retreat after the battle with only ten barrels of gunpowder remaining. This defeat weakened the Royalists, but the King still had support in Wales.

Most Welsh soldiers who fought for the king served as foot soldiers, either pikemen or musketeers. They rose before dawn to drill, clean weapons and maintain camps before marching or fighting. Uniforms were rarely all the same, with many soldiers wearing their ordinary farming clothes. Discipline was strict, desertion could mean death and conduct was expected to be moral and Christian. Richard Jones, who attacked a civilian, was executed for example.

Not all of Wales supported the king. In Pembrokeshire, Mayor John Poyer and Colonel Rowland Laugharne supported Parliament. Parliamentarians later went on to capture Tenby, Haverfordwest and Carew castles.

Fighting in Wales

Most of the Civil War battles took place in England. But there was some fighting in Wales.

• In 1644, Parliament's army attacked and defeated a Royalist force that was surrounding Montgomery Castle.
• Parliament's army surrounded Raglan Castle for 10 weeks before capturing it in 1646.
• The Battle of St Fagans (1648) was the largest battle ever fought in Wales and one of the final battles of the Civil War. Despite the larger army, the Royalists were defeated within two hours, with around 300 killed and 3,000 captured, ending organised support for the king in Wales.
• Following their defeat at St Fagans, Royalist leaders retreated to Pembroke Castle, where parliamentary soldiers dramatically swapped sides and joined the Royalists after they had not been paid. Oliver Cromwell, the Parliamentarian leader surrounded the castle for eight weeks until the Royalists surrendered.

Why was Wales important?

Wales was strategically important because it remained a Royalist stronghold for much of the Civil War. Wales also provided Charles with direct sea routes to Catholic Ireland. Wales’s location meant that Irish reinforcements could and did land at ports including Milford Haven, Pembroke and Holyhead before travelling through Wales to join Royalist armies in England.

However, despite Welsh support, the Royalists were defeated in the Civil War.

When Parliament won the Civil War, it brought in a series of important changes that transformed life in Wales.

Leadership and power

• Charles I was put on trial and executed in 1649.
• Parliament also got rid of the monarchy and the House of Lords.
• Royalist lands and estates were confiscated or heavily fined by the new parliamentary government. This allowed Parliament supporters to become landowners and buy valuable property. Philip Jones of Llangyfelach became one of the most successful, purchasing Fonmon Castle in 1654 before investing in agriculture and the growing coal and iron industries of south Wales.
• Politically, many Welsh Royalists were punished after Parliament's victory. Landowners had to pay heavy fines to recover confiscated land, while others lost their land altogether.
• Royalist officers were imprisoned or executed, for example John Poyer, who led the Pembrokeshire rising in 1648, was executed in 1649.
• Parliament also replaced many Royalists in local government with loyal supporters, weakening the influence of the traditional Welsh gentry.
• The Civil War also transformed the careers of Welshmen who fought for Parliament and were linked to the king's execution. Colonel John Jones of Maesygarnedd became the only Welshman to sign Charles I's death warrant, and later served on the Council of State. However, when Charles II returned in 1660, Jones was arrested and executed for his part in the regicide.

Religion

• Parliament abolished the jobs of bishops and archbishops in 1646.
• Parliament also banned Charles' prayer book, known as the Book of Common Prayer, because many Members of Parliament believed it was too similar to Catholic worship.
• Parliament believed Wales needed stronger Protestant teaching. They passed the 1650 Act for the Better Propagation and Preaching of the Gospel in Wales. Commissioners were sent by the government to remove members of the clergy who were considered corrupt, incompetent or still loyal to the King, and replaced them with Puritan ministers. However, many of the new preachers only spoke English, which created significant tension in largely Welsh-speaking communities.

These changes meant that Puritanism became much more influential in Wales.

Society

The Civil War brought serious social changes to Wales. Thousands of Welsh soldiers were killed, wounded or left in poverty.

• People suffered because soldiers took their food, horses and farm animals. As a result, farming and trade suffered, especially during sieges at places like Raglan and Pembroke. Poor hygiene also helped diseases such as typhus and dysentery spread, causing even more deaths.
• The war also affected those who travelled with the armies. After the Battle of Naseby (1645), Parliamentarian soldiers attacked over 100 women who were travelling with the Royalist army. These women were known as the Women of Naseby. They were brutally killed and mutilated by Parliament's soldiers. The soldiers claimed the women were Irish Catholic fighters. In reality, many may have been Welsh-speaking women who were wrongly identified as Irish.

How was Wales governed in the 1650s?

The Commonwealth and the Rump Parliament

The Commonwealth is the name of the period of government after the Civil War ended. Parliament ran the country, Charles I was executed, and the monarchy was abolished. Some Members of Parliament (MPs) did not want Charles to be executed, and these MPs were forced out of Parliament, leaving about 200 MPs in what was called the Rump Parliament. They ruled the country at first after the Civil War ended.

However, the Rump Parliament struggled to govern effectively.

Oliver Cromwell and the Lord Protectorate

In 1653, Oliver Cromwell dissolved the Rump Parliament and became Lord Protector. He ruled with the support of the army. During his rule, England and Wales were divided into regions governed by Major-Generals, who used military authority to maintain law and order and enforce Cromwell's policies.

Military rule and Puritanism in Wales

Wales was placed under the control of Major-General James Berry, who governed both Wales and the neighbouring English border counties. His task was to prevent further Royalist rebellions, collect taxes and enforce Parliament's and Cromwell’s authority.

Berry was also strongly Protestant and promoted Puritanism. He closed down pubs, banned traditional sports and festivals and made sure that Anglican clergy were replaced by Puritan preachers. Many Welsh people resented these changes, particularly as Berry was seen as an English outsider. His rule became increasingly unpopular and ended in 1657, shortly before Cromwell's death.

Support and opposition in Wales

After the end of the Rule of the Major-Generals and Cromwell’s death, Parliament governed Wales through County Committees, which collected taxes, confiscated Royalist estates and enforced Puritan laws. However, some Royalist gentry chose to work with them rather than resist. Men such as Sir Thomas Myddelton and Sir Richard Wynn hoped that cooperating would protect their estates, reduce fines and help them maintain their local influence.

Despite this cooperation between the new government and the Welsh gentry, loyalty to the Stuarts remained strong across much of Wales. Many Welsh people disliked military rule, Puritan restrictions, and heavy fines imposed on Royalists. Secret Royalist groups continued to operate, printing and circulating secret pamphlets supporting the return of Charles II (Charles I’s son and heir). Some Welsh people also showed their opposition to the Commonwealth by refusing to pay taxes or serve the government.

The fall of the Commonwealth

The republican government began to collapse after Oliver Cromwell died in 1658. His son, Richard Cromwell, lacked authority and resigned the following year as disputes between Parliament and the army intensified.

In 1659, Sir Thomas Myddelton led a Royalist uprising around Wrexham. They declared Charles II the rightful king. Although Colonel John Lambert quickly defeated the rebellion at Chirk Castle, it exposed the growing weakness of the republican government and that support for the Royalists remained strong in Wales.

The Commonwealth ended in 1660, when George Monck marched south from Scotland and persuaded Parliament to restore the monarchy. Before returning, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, which promised limited religious toleration, protection of property and pardons for most of those who had opposed him. These promises reassured many MPs who were concerned about his return to power.

In May 1660, Parliament invited Charles II back to Britain as king. His return restored the Stuart monarchy and brought eleven years of republican rule to an end.