Genghis Khan c.1162 – c.1227

Childhood and youth

Genghis Khan’s real name was Temujin. He was born around 1162, although many historians are not sure of the exact date.

At this time, the Mongols were not a single united people. They were divided into many different tribes, or clans, which often competed with one another for land, livestock and influence.

Each tribe was led by a chief known as a Khan. Many Mongols were nomadic herders, moving from place to place with their animals in search of grazing land. They were also skilled horse riders.

Temujin’s father was called Yesugei and was leader of the Borjigin tribe. He was poisoned by the neighbouring Tatar tribe, who were enemies of his family. After the murder of his father, Temujin and his family lost protection and status. They faced a difficult life and were abandoned by many of their tribe.

Temujin’s mother was called Hö'elün. She worked hard to keep the family alive after being abandoned.

His early life taught Temujin a great deal about loyalty, leadership and how to survive. He realised that the Mongol tribes needed stronger leadership and unity if they were to survive and prosper.

Temujin as a leader

Although his family had been rejected by his tribe, he still had some respect and status because they belonged to the royal family. Temujin used his status to begin to gather support.

• Temujin married a girl called Börte.
• She was kidnapped by the Merkit tribe.
• Temujin asked for help from the Kereit tribe.
• Toghril of the Kereit tribe, and Temujin's ally, Jamukha, helped him raise an army to rescue Börte.

Temujin's victory over the Merkit won him more followers and increased his reputation as a leader and warrior.

Temujin built a loyal following of nökers. They were warriors who pledged their personal allegiance to him. These men formed the core of his army and were crucial to his early successes. Unlike many tribal leaders, Temujin often promoted people based on loyalty and ability rather than their status or wealth. This helped him build a strong and loyal following.

In 1202 Temujin defeated the Tartars. After his victory, Temujin ordered the execution of Tartar men who were taller than the axle-height of a cart (about 1 meter, or 3 feet).

Temujin faced challenges from several rival leaders, including his childhood friend Jamukha. The two disagreed about how the Mongol tribes should be led, and this led to a series of conflicts between them. Temujin eventually defeated Jamukha, who was later executed.

Another conflict was with Ong Khan, leader of the Kereit tribe. In the early years they were friends, however with Temujin getting more power and support, the relationship began to change. War broke out, and in 1203 Temujin won the war and defeated the Kereit tribe.

In 1204, Genghis Khan defeated the Naiman tribe at the Battle of Chakirmaut. This was the last of the rival Mongol tribes.

By 1204, Temujin had defeated his main rivals and become the most powerful leader in Mongolia.

In 1206 at a kurultai, which was an assembly of Mongol Chiefs, Temujin was proclaimed Genghis Khan, the ruler of a united Mongol nation.

Genghis Khan needed to create a stable and organised Mongol nation, with a legal and political structure.

Genghis Khan established a royal court and personal bodyguard known as the keshig. They protected Genghis Khan and provided military power.

Genghis Khan's chief wife, Börte, played an important role in his life and in the early Mongol Empire. She held a high status at court, and her sons were recognised as Genghis Khan's main heirs.

Genghis Khan introduced a number of changes that affected Mongol society and government.

• He reorganised the Mongol army using the decimal system, dividing soldiers into units of 10, 100, 1,000 and 10,000. This created a clear chain of command.

• He mixed members of different tribes within army units, reducing the importance of tribal loyalties.

• He promoted people based on ability and loyalty, rather than tribal background.

• He adopted a written script based on the Uyghuralphabet to record laws, taxes and government business.

• He encouraged trade and provided protection for merchants travelling through Mongol lands.

• He introduced a code of laws known as the Yassa, which emphasised:

  • loyalty and obedience
  • military discipline
  • social order
  • religious tolerance, provided people remained loyal to the Mongol state

Many historians consider these changes to have helped strengthen and unify the Mongol Empire, making it easier to govern its growing territory.

The Invasion of China

At the start of the 13th century, China was divided between several rival states rather than being ruled by a single government. These states sometimes competed with one another, which created opportunities for the expanding Mongol Empire.

• The Jin Dynasty controlled northern China.
• The Western Xia (Xi Xia) Dynasty controlled north-west China.
• The Southern Song Dynasty controlled southern China.

Genghis Khan and the Mongols attacked these states over a number of years, gradually extending Mongol control across parts of China.

In 1205, Genghis Khan began attacking western Xia. After several campaigns, its rulers accepted Mongol authority. In 1226, Emperor Xianzong of western Xia attempted to resist Mongol control and sought support from neighbouring states. However, western Xia was unable to stop the Mongol advance. Genghis Khan launched another invasion, and by 1227 the Mongols had taken complete control of the state.

In 1211, Genghis Khan invaded the Jin Dynasty in northern China. The Mongols captured large areas of territory and, in 1215, took Zhongdu (modern Beijing), the Jin capital. The conquest caused significant destruction and loss of life. Although the Mongols controlled much of northern China after this, the Jin Dynasty was not fully defeated until 1234, after Genghis Khan's death.

The Southern Song Dynasty remained independent during Genghis Khan's lifetime. It was not until 1279, under his grandson Kublai Khan, that the Mongols completed their conquest of China.

Many historians consider the conquest of China to be one of the most important stages in the growth of the Mongol Empire, as it brought large populations, resources and territories under Mongol rule.

The Khwarazmian Empire was a rich and powerful empire that controlled present-day central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iran. Genghis Khan decided to attack the Khwarazmian Empire.

Why?

• He wanted to gain more land, wealth and power.
• Many people in the Khwarazmian Empire did not agree with their ruler, Shah Muhammad II. Some local governors and leaders disagreed with him and did not work together. This made the Khwarazmian Empire weak and vulnerable.
• Both the Mongols and the Khwarazmian Empire controlled important sections of the Silk Road.
• Control of the Silk Road was valuable because it helped states gain wealth from trade. Competition for control of these routes increased tensions between the Mongols and the Khwarazmian Empire. The Mongols also used the routes to move goods, messages and armies across their territory.
• In 1218, a Mongol trading caravan was seized at Otrar and its merchants were killed. When Genghis Khan demanded compensation, Shah Muhammad II refused and executed one of his ambassadors. Genghis Khan felt insulted about the way his ambassador had been treated.

Impact of Mongol attacks

• In 1220, the Mongols captured the city of Bukhara.
• They looted the city and destroyed many buildings.
• Soon after, they attacked Samarkand, one of the empire's largest and richest cities.
• Samarkand also fell to the Mongols, showing that the empire could not stop the Mongol advance.
• Tens of thousands of people were killed during the Mongol invasion.
• Shah Muhammad II fled from the Mongol armies as they advanced across his empire. He died in 1220 in exile.

The Mongol victory led to the collapse of the Khwarazmian Empire and greatly expanded the Mongol Empire across central Asia.

Genghis Khan died in 1227, after ruling for 21 years. His influence continued to shape the world for generations.

Immediate legacy

Before his death in 1227, Genghis Khan named his son Ögodei as his successor. After Genghis Khan's death, Ögodei was formally elected Great Khan in 1229. The transfer of power took place without a major civil war, helping the Mongol Empire remain united during this period. Many historians consider the succession to have played an important role in maintaining stability within the empire.

He left behind a powerful and well-organised empire. His military reforms created a disciplined and highly effective army. His laws and regulations, known as the Yassa, helped maintain order across the empire. The empire controlled a vast area with many different peoples, cultures, and resources.

These strong foundations allowed the Mongol Empire to continue growing after his death.

How has Genghis Khan been remembered?

Historians have different views on Genghis Khan. Some see him as an effective leader who united the Mongol tribes and built one of the largest empires in history. Others focus on the destruction and loss of life caused by his military campaigns.

As a result, there is debate about how Genghis Khan should be remembered for many reasons including:

• Destruction: His armies destroyed many cities and killed large numbers of people during their conquests.
• Peace and stability: After the wars, he helped create a more stable empire where trade and travel became easier.
• Tolerance: People in the empire were usually allowed to follow their own religions and customs.
• Diversity: The Mongol Empire brought together many different cultures, languages and peoples.

His legacy remains one of the most debated in world history.